Methodological rigor also did not significantly correlate with year of publication (r = 0.327, p = 0.096) nor total sample size (r = 0.258, p = 0.194). An iterative, multi-stage trajectory for developing animal models and assessing their quality is proposed. Studies on psychiatric service dogs, emotional support dogs, and pet dogs were excluded. Disadvantages of animal studies in psychology, are the finest-quality pictures of lovely, adorable animals that we have gathered for you and Friend. Therefore, in the cases where positive outcomes were reported in these studies, it is unknown what amount of time with an assistance dog the finding was associated with (and therefore difficult to compare to findings from other studies). Second, only 63% of studies described inclusion and/or exclusion criteria of recruited participants, and some studies did not report all demographic or disability characteristics of participants. Compared to those on the waitlist, individuals with an assistance dog report better psychosocial functioning and wellbeing [16, 17]. Advantages Useful Findings. [15] found no difference in self-esteem, adequacy, or competency over 12-months following receiving a mobility service dog. This effect may be compounded by the possibility that those who apply for an assistance dog may inherently have certain positive characteristics (e.g., stable housing, stable finances, has a familial support system) that contribute to overall psychosocial health. Center for the Human-Animal Bond, College of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, United States of America, Current address: Human-Animal Bond in Colorado, School of Social Work, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America, Affiliation: Using a new technique, it is now possible to temporarily inactivate the amygdala in a monkey and see how other brain areas (including those that are not directly connected to the amygdala) change their activity (Grayson et al., 2016). Probably not, in much the same way that nonhuman research that permitted a significant human study to be conducted is rarely described in todays textbooks. Pet-Owning Kids Are Generally Better Off Even if we accept evolutionary psychology, humans have evolved to be very different from most other animals, perhaps all other animals. The authors found three studies reporting an association between having a seizure alert or response dog and improvements to quality of life and wellbeing, concluding a need for more research. Using the Reintegration to Normal Living Index [RNLI; 59], Hubert found improvements in the ability to return to normal life after 7-months with a mobility service dog while Vincent et al. Opinion: Why research using animals is important in psychology In addition to poor methodological reporting, many studies were restrained by statistical weaknesses. Advantages and Disadvantages of Animal Testing | Sciencing In terms of general vitality and energy, four studies used the SF-36 to measure the effect of having an assistance dog on the vitality domain. If it does, then it can be tested on humans with a lower risk of a negative outcome. Limitations One author argued that an important methodological issue is the absence of appropriate measures in measuring the effect of an assistance dog on recipients lives [32]. However, more than half of all studies (16/27; 59%) had sample sizes greater than or equal to N = 50. This poses a severe threat to the validity of findings as group differences in outcomes could be caused by underlying differences in certain demographics or characteristics and cannot be confidently attributed to the presence of the assistance dog. Average age across all studies was 42 +/- 13 years old. Regarding sleep, Guest found better self-reported sleep quality 3- and 12-months after receiving a hearing dog while Rodriguez et al. Continued efforts are required to improve methodological rigor, conduct replicable research, and account for heterogeneity in both humans and animals to advance the state of knowledge in this field. As research on the assistance animal-handler relationship continues to increase, there is a need for an updated, comprehensive collation of the literature encompassing studies on the effects of all varieties of assistance dogs (guide dogs, hearing dogs, and both mobility and medical service dogs) including both published studies and unpublished theses and dissertations. This means that any studies on animals cannot be accurately related to humans, making them invalid. Overall, sample sizes were higher than what is usually observed in targeted animal-assisted intervention studies with dogs (e.g. Thoughts on limitations of animal models - ScienceDirect Of the 44 positive comparisons, 36 (82%) were from published papers and 8 (18%) were from unpublished theses. Apprehension around burgeoning medical research in the late 1800s and the first half of the 20 th century sparked concerns over the use of humans and animals in research , .Suspicions around the use of humans were deepened with the revelation of several exploitive research projects, including a series of medical . The other four studies reported no changes in participants mental health 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog [35], 4-months after receiving a mobility service dog [28], and 7-months after receiving a hearing or mobility service dog [32]. Table 6 summarizes vitality outcomes across studies within the sub-categories of general energy/vitality and sleep. As Serpell and colleagues point out, individuals that dont benefit from animal-assisted interventions may be just as informative from a scientific perspective as the ones that do, and the entire field potentially suffers when these sorts of contrary or ambiguous findings get buried or ignored [74]. The disadvantage of animal research is that it lessens the value of life. For example, we know what the connections are between the amygdala and other brain regions, but how does activity in the amygdala affect brain functioning? However, a recent 2018 review summarized five published quantitative studies describing outcomes from seizure alert and seizure response service dogs. However, methodological rigor did not significantly differ by study design (t(25) = -0.940, p = 0.356). Animal psychologists have been undergoing an identity crisis, with increasingly common criticisms of the traditional field revolving around the assumption that laboratory preparations alone will reveal laws of learning having generality. The electronic searches were performed on July 23, 2018, and updated on January 23, 2019. Studies made an average of 5.4 statistical comparisons on psychosocial outcomes, ranging from 115 comparisons. In the next sub-category, six studies assessed life satisfaction outcomes using Satisfaction with Life Scale [SWLS; 57]. Promising areas include psychological wellbeing, emotional wellbeing, and social participation in which several positive outcomes were identified. Samples sizes ranged from 10 to 316 participants with an average sample size across all studies of N = 83 +/- 74 participants and a median sample size of N = 53. Three studies found positive findings on measures of overall psychological wellbeing or psychosocial health, including increased psychological wellbeing 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog [35], 6-months after receiving a mobility service dog [14], and better overall psychosocial health in those with a mobility or medical service dog compared to a control group [16]. The study of nonhuman animals has actually played a huge role in psychology, and it continues to do so today. Can you really generalise results from animals to humans? Further, in contrast to a psychiatric service dog or an emotional support dog, the assistance dogs in this review are not explicitly trained for mental health-related support and their effects on the psychosocial health of their handlers may be variable rather than population-wide. Summary of methodological rating scores by each of the N = 27 individual studies. A total of 1,830 records were screened via title and abstract in which 1,576 records were excluded due to irrelevancy (see Fig 1 for PRISMA diagram). Overall, studies addressed an average of 62% of methodological consideration items with a range of 23% (3/13) to 100% (15/15; denominators were variable as there were two items not applicable to all study designs). Therefore, future efforts should be made to publish null findings in peer-reviewed journals and to encourage scientific transparency [80]. S1 Table. The discussion section aims to review the findings from each aim and to provide targeted suggestions for future research. Why is animal psychology important? https://assistancedogsinternational.org/resources/adi-terms-definitions/, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1591(98)00120-8, https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/study-quality-assessment-tools, https://www.cardiff.ac.uk/specialist-unit-for-review-evidence/resources/critical-appraisal-checklists, Corrections, Expressions of Concern, and Retractions. The lack of guide dog-specific research is especially surprising given that guide dogs not only have the longest history of any type of assistance dog [61] but are also the most commonly placed assistance dog placed by professional facilities worldwide [2]. This page has been archived and is no longer being updated regularly. However, Guest et al. Conducting periodic systematic reviews of this research is crucial to both disseminate knowledge as well as to identify knowledge gaps for future studies [20]. Most longitudinal studies (8/12) assessed participants at two time points: at baseline prior to receiving an assistance dog, and an average of 5.8 +/- 3.3 months after participants received an assistance dog (range of 312 months follow-up). Of 1,830 records screened, 24 articles were identified (12 publications, 12 theses) containing 27 studies (15 cross-sectional, 12 longitudinal). In other contexts, dogs can be specially trained to provide specific benefits to individuals with impairments, disabilities, or chronic conditions as trained assistance animals. alerting or responding to medical crises such hypoglycemia or seizures), and individuals with mental health disorders (e.g. Longitudinal studies have found that individuals report improvements to their emotional wellbeing, social functioning, and quality of life just 3 to 6 months after receiving an assistance dog [1315]. After removing duplicate articles in EndNote following a validated protocol [23], articles were screened based on their title and abstract. The three Rs are a set of principles that scientists are encouraged to follow in order to reduce the impact of research on animals. Of 58 total psychological outcomes, 21 (37%) were positive (improved or better psychological health in comparison to pre- or control conditions), 37 (63%) were null (no difference), and zero (0%) were negative (decreased or worse functioning in comparison to pre- or control conditions). Study designs included both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies, with only one randomized longitudinal study identified [14]. Most articles were published in the 2010s, indicating an increasing publication interest in this topic over time. Finally, one of the most notable examples of poor methodological reporting across studies was the omission of information regarding assistance dogs sources (e.g. Longitudinal studies addressed an average of 59% of methodological items while cross-sectional studies averaged 65%. A main weakness of animal studies is that animals have a different physiology to humans. The findings from Lorenz's research (as outlined below) offers support for the idea that infants have an attachment gene and that they imprint on a caregiver not long after birth. Lundqvist et al. However, these are relatively new categories of assistance dogs [2], many of which may also be self-trained [62], and it appears that emerging research on this population has centered on medical benefits [63] rather than psychosocial. The remaining studies were quasi-experimental in that they did not use randomized assignment to treatment or control groups. The use of animal models in behavioural neuroscience research Importantly, unpublished theses had a similar average sample size as published studies, with similar power to detect effects compared to published studies. Using a different measure of emotional functioning, Rodriguez et al. Marguerite E. OHaire, Affiliation: Animal models are used in experiments in the behavioural neurosciences that aim to contribute to the prevention and treatment of cognitive and affective disorders in human beings, such as anxiety and depression. In particular, not only did studies vary largely in terms of sample size, but they also varied in the manner in which statistical analyses were conducted. Discuss the Strengths and Weaknesses of the Use of Animals for Because medical service dogs are a relatively new category of assistance dog placements [2], there has been less research on the psychosocial effects of medical alert and response service dogs on their handlers. Inability to draw cause-and-effect conclusions: The biggest disadvantage of naturalistic observation is that determining the exact cause of a subject's behavior can be difficult. This is the result of a new study led by researchers at the University of Mannheim and the Max Planck Institute for Human Development in Berlin Summary of social outcomes across studies ordered by sub-category, then by standardized measure. Medical service dogs for diabetes and seizure alert/response were rarely studied [16, 35], and were assessed in conjunction with mobility service dogs rather than on their own. Our search procedure identified 24 articles containing 27 studies assessing psychosocial outcomes from a wide variety of human and assistance dog populations. Learning and language theories.An interesting insight into the animal world DisadvantagesThe Ethics of animal testing. Following PRISMA guidelines, a systematic review was conducted across seven electronic databases. Using the Profile of Mood States Scale [POMS; 51], Guest found increased self-reported vigor 3- and 12-months after receiving a hearing dog and less fatigue 3-months after receiving a hearing dog. PLOS is a nonprofit 501(c)(3) corporation, #C2354500, based in San Francisco, California, US. A total of 254 records were screened via full text, of which 230 were excluded. One of the first reviews published by Modlin in 2000 [7] summarized nine published quantitative and qualitative studies on the benefits of guide dogs, hearing dogs, and mobility service dogs on their handlers (omitting unpublished theses). Of 5 studies that used the mental health domain of the SF-36 or the shorter 12-Item Short Form Health Survey (SF-12), only Shintani et al. Articles were published from 19942018 with publication dates in the 1990s (5), 2000s (9), and 2010s (10) indicating an increasing publication rate on this topic over time. In addition, null findings were reported on standardized measures of family role 3-, 6-, and 12-months after receiving a mobility service dog [15], discrimination and social inclusion 12-months after receiving a mobility service dog [34], and family and social self-concept among mobility dog users compared to a control group [37]. In terms of general social functioning, 2/10 comparisons made were significant. [17] found better functioning among those with a mobility service dog compared to a control group. John Capitanio, PhD, is a research psychologist in the department of psychology at the University of California, Davis, and a core scientist at the California National Primate Research Center. The most commonly used measure was the Craig Handicap Assessment and Reporting Technique [CHART; 58] which assesses how people with disabilities function as active members of their communities. Author KR then coded 100% of articles. One of the main considerations in understanding the potential variability across findings is the aspect of time since assistance dog placement. Overall, most (68%) of comparisons made across studies were null in which no statistical difference was found in the outcome compared to before getting an assistance dog or compared to a control group. Three Blind Mice, See How They Run: A Critique of Behavioral Research Most studies (15/27; 56%) were conducted in the United States, followed by the United Kingdom (6/27; 22%). In parallel with an increasing amount of research quantifying the therapeutic benefits of companion dogs and therapy dogs on human health and wellbeing [5, 6], there has been an increased focus on quantifying the physical, psychological, and social effects that assistance dogs may have on their handlers [79]. Unfortunately, many introductory textbooks don't give the full picture of animal research. [17] found no difference among mobility service dog users compared to controls. Future longitudinal research in this population is necessary to understand the complex psychosocial and physical roles that guide dogs play in the lives of their handlers. The replicated measures identified in this review can serve as a basis for future researchers to collate the existing literature when making assessment choices. After receiving an assistance dog, individuals retrospectively report increases to their social, emotional, and psychological health [e.g., 1012]. Kerri E. Rodriguez, We also planned to extract or manually calculate effect sizes to create funnel plots to investigate potential publication biases. For general psychological health, 5/11 (45%) outcomes were significant across group or condition. As mentioned above, a surprisingly high number of studies did not ensure that assistance dog and control groups were statistically equal across demographic and disability characteristics prior to outcome analyses. Citation: Rodriguez KE, Greer J, Yatcilla JK, Beck AM, OHaire ME (2020) The effects of assistance dogs on psychosocial health and wellbeing: A systematic literature review. When reporting statistical results, 78% of studies (21/27) provided estimates of variability for outcomes, including confidence intervals, standard deviations, or standard error of the mean. Discover a faster, simpler path to publishing in a high-quality journal. First, only 59% of studies stated whether ethical approval for human subjects was sought and received. [32] found no difference in occupational functioning 7-months after receiving a mobility service dog and Milan [41] found no group difference in those with and without a mobility service dog. [35] found increased functioning 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog, while Shintani et al. purpose-bred from a provider, self-trained) and breeds (e.g., Labrador Retriever, Golden Retriever, Mixes). Second, there is inherent variation in both the quality and quantity of interactions from one assistance dog-owner pair to the next. At this stage, articles were excluded if they were (1) non-English; (2) written for a magazine or other non-peer-reviewed source; (3) book reviews, book chapters, editorials, letters, or opinion papers that did not collect original data; (4) conference abstracts or proceedings; (5) studies assessing companion, therapy, or emotional support animals that were not trained for tasks or work related to a specific disability. For the study of most cognitive functions, lesion studies in animals have and will likely continue to provide insights that cannot be obtained through research on humans. How Comparative Psychologists Study Animal Behavior - Verywell Mind Visual display of methodological ratings for N = 27 studies ordered by the number of studies addressing each item. The most notable weaknesses included a lack of adequate reporting in the methodological sections, which not only limits interpretation of findings but prevents reproducibility. Authors JG and KR independently coded 20% of the included articles to establish adequate inter-rater reliability (alpha = 0.822). Many studies did not confirm that participants across groups were statistically equivalent on key demographic variables such as age and sex/gender before conducting statistical analyses. When human studies are presented, there is rarely discussion of the basic animal research that enabled those studies to be done. Research has indicated that beyond the physical or tangible benefits that an assistance dog is trained to provide (e.g. Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work. Copyright: 2020 Rodriguez et al. The three Rs. Increased research on this topic is likely in parallel with the increased roles and demands for different types of assistance dogs worldwide [2] as well as increased interest in the benefits of animal interaction for human health and wellbeing [60]. If you've taken an introductory psychology class, then you have probably read about seminal psychological research that was done with animals: Skinner's rats, Pavlov's dogs, Harlow's monkeys. Beyond the functional tasks that assistance dogs are trained for, there is growing literature describing their benefits on the psychosocial health and wellbeing of their handlers. Using another measure of energy and fatigue, Craft [40] found no difference in those with or without a mobility service dog. The CES-D asks participants to rate how often they had experienced 20 depressive symptoms in the prior week using statements such as I thought my life had been a failure, while the POMS asks participants to rate from not at all to extremely how they feel right now using single words such as sad and unhappy. It is also possible that some standardized measures do not capture the intended effects from having an assistance dog. Brought to you by Sciencing Unnecessary Cruelty Animal rights advocates argue that testing on animals is cruel and unnecessary. Part of that approval process requires the scientist to identify whether there might be less invasive ways to do the same thing. Fig 2 displays the total scores across each of the 15 items, separated by introduction, methods, results, and discussion sections (see S2 Table for individual study scores). As the field of animal-assisted intervention is multidisciplinary, a wide and extensive search was conducted encompassing medical and scientific databases. However, other studies reported no relationship between having a mobility service dog and self-esteem via the RSES [39, 41] or other standardized measures of self-esteem [15, 28, 36]. PDF American Psychological Association (APA) The sub-category of loneliness had 19 comparisons in which only 1/19 (5%) was significant. A study protocol was designed a-priori to define the search strategy, inclusion and exclusion criteria, and items for data extraction. PLoS ONE 15(12): Therefore, the current literature is limited to correlational, rather than causal conclusions regarding the benefits of assistance dogs on the psychosocial health of their owners. Only 5/27 studies (19%) described dogs breeds and sources. However, 2 studies found worse occupational functioning in terms of employment, schooling, or homemaking. Some connect animal testing to racism or sexism, arguing that all living creatures are worthy of respect and that making animals suffer for any reason is morally wrong. He is currently the chair of APAs Committee on Animal Research and Ethics. We can also ask and answer certain questions that would be difficult or impossible to do with humans. [15] found improvements to daily work activities 3- and 12-months after receiving mobility service dog (but not in self-care or dealing with life events). Using the Psychosocial Impact of Assistive Devices Scale [PIADS; 54], Vincent et al. Only 6/27 (22%) reported any estimates of effect size in their results. Exclusions included those based on population, outcomes, and methodology.